Agarwal, B. 2001. “Participatory Exclusions, Community Forestry, and Gender: An Analysis for South Asia and a Conceptual Framework.” World Development 29 (10): 1623–48.

Angassa, A. 2016. “Vegetation Responses to Site, Elevation and Land Use in Semi-Arid Rangeland of Southern Ethiopia.” African Journal of Agricultural Research 11 (5): 379–91.

Badiani, R., and K. Jessoe. 2018. “Electricity Prices, Groundwater, and Agriculture: The Environmental and Agricultural Impacts of Electricity Subsidies in India.” In Agricultural Productivity and Producer Behavior, edited by Wolfram Schlenker, 157–83. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Berhane, G., J. Hoddinott, and N. Kumar. 2017. “The Impact of Ethiopia’s Productive Safety Net Programme on the Nutritional Status of Children: 2008–2012.” ESSP Working Paper 99, International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, DC.

Borrelli, P., D. A. Robinson, L. R. Fleischer, E. Lugato, C. Ballabio, C. Alewell, K. Meusburger, et al. 2017. “An Assessment of the Global Impact of 21st Century Land Use Change on Soil Erosion.” Nature Communications 8 (1): 2013. doi:10.1038/s41467-017-02142-7.

Burek, P., Y. Satoh, G. Fischer, M. T. Kahil, A. Scherzer, S. Tramberend, L. F. Nava, et al. 2016. “Water Futures and Solution: Fast Track Initiative—Final Report.” Working Paper WP-16-006, International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, Laxenburg, Austria.

Cervigni, R., and M. Morris, eds. 2016. Confronting Drought in Africa’s Drylands: Opportunities for Enhancing Resilience. Africa Development Forum Series. Washington, DC: World Bank.

Cherlet, M., C. Hutchinson, J. Reynolds, J. Hill, S Sommer, and G. von Maltitz, eds. 2018. World Atlas of Desertification. Luxembourg: Publication Office of the European Union.

Damania, R., S. Desbureaux, M. Hyland, A. Islam, S. Moore, A.-S. Rodella, J. Russ, and E. Zaveri. 2017. Uncharted Waters: The New Economics of Water Scarcity and Variability. Washington, DC: World Bank.

Dardel, C., L. Kergoat, P. Hiernaux, E. Mougin, M. Grippa, and C. J. Tucker. 2014. “Re-greening Sahel: 30 Years of Remote Sensing Data and Field Observations (Mali, Niger).” Remote Sensing of Environment 140: 350–64.

Darghouth, S., C. Ward, G. Gambarelli, E. Styger, and J. Roux. 2008. “Watershed Management Approaches, Policies, and Operations: Lessons for Scaling Up.” Water Sector Board Discussion Paper 11, World Bank, Washington, DC.

Darwall, W., B. Polidoro, K. Smith, and J. Somda. 2015. “Ecosystem Profile: Guinean Forests of West Africa Biodiversity Hotspot.” Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund, Arlington, VA.

Deininger, K., and S. Jin. 2002. “The Impact of Property Rights on Households’ Investment, Risk Coping, and Policy Preferences: Evidence from China.” Policy Research Working Paper 2931, World Bank, Washington, DC.

Deininger, K., S. Savastano, and F. Xia. 2017. “Smallholders’ Land Access in Sub-Saharan Africa: A New Landscape?” Food Policy 67: 78–92.

Desalegn, G., and S. N. Ali. 2018. “Review of the Impact of Productive Safety Net Program (PSNP) on Rural Welfare in Ethiopia.” ZEF Working Paper Series 173, Center for Development Research, University of Bonn, Bonn.

FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization). 2017. The State of Food and Agriculture: Leveraging Food Systems for Inclusive Rural Transformation. Rome: FAO.

FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization). 2018a. The State of the World’s Forests 2018: Forest Pathways to Sustainable Development. Rome: FAO.

FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization). 2018b. The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2018: Meeting the Sustainable Development Goals. Rome: FAO.

FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization). 2020. “Protecting Land and Natural Resources Tenure Rights in the Era of COVID-19 by Heeding the Lessons from the Past.” FAO, Rome.

FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization) and World Bank. 2018. “Water Management in Fragile Systems: Building Resilience to Shocks and Protracted Crises in the Middle East and North Africa.” Discussion Paper, FAO and World Bank, Cairo.

FLARE Network Secretariat. 2016. “Mapping the Spatial Proximity between People and Forests: A New Dataset to Aid Environment and Development Decision-Making.” FLARE Network. http://www.forestlivelihoods.org/resources/fpp.

Fratkin, E., and R. Mearns. 2003. “Sustainability and Pastoral Livelihoods: Lessons from East African Maasai and Mongolia.” Human Organization 62 (2): 112–22.

Fussel, H. M., and R. Klein. 2006. “Climate Change Vulnerability Assessments: An Evolution of Conceptual Thinking.” Climatic Change 75 (3): 301–29.

GEF (Global Environment Facility). 2019. “The Great Green Wall Initiative, Supporting Resilient Livelihoods and Landscapes in the Sahel.” GEF. https://www.thegef.org/sites/default/files/publications/gef_great_green_wall_initiative_august_2019_EN_0.pdf.

Gray, E., and A. Srinidhi. 2013. “Watershed Development in India: Economic Valuation and Adaptation Considerations.” Working Paper, World Resources Institute, Washington, DC.

Hansen, M. C., P. V. Potapov, R. Moore, M. Hancher, S. A. Turubanova, A. Tyukavina, D. Thau, et al. 2013. “High-Resolution Global Maps of 21st-Century Forest Cover Change.” Science 342 (6160): 850–53. doi:10.1126/science.1244693.

Hartung, H., and I. Pluschke. 2018. The Benefits and Risks of Solar Powered Irrigation—
A Global Overview. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization.

Herrmann, S. M., A. Anyamba, and C. J. Tucker. 2005. “Recent Trends in Vegetation Dynamics in the African Sahel and Their Relationship to Climate.” Global Environmental Change 15 (4): 394–404. doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2005.08.004.

Hirji, R., S. Mandal, and G. Pangare, eds. 2017. South Asia Groundwater Forum: Regional Challenges and Opportunities for Building Drought and Climate Resilience for Farmers, Cities, and Villages. New Delhi: Academic Foundation.

Hofste, R., S. Kuzma, S. Walker, E. H. Sutanudjaja, M. F. P. Bierkens, M. J. M. Kuijper, M. F. Sànchez, et al. 2019. “Aqueduct 3.0: Updated Decision-Relevant Global Water Risk Indicators.” Technical Note, World Resources Institute, Washington, DC.

Holden, S. T., and K. Otsuka. 2014. “The Roles of Land Tenure Reforms and Land Markets in the Context of Population Growth and Land Use Intensification in Africa.” Food Policy 48: 88–97.

Holden, S. T., B. Shiferaw, and M. Wik. 1998. “Poverty, Credit Constraints, and Time Preferences: Of Relevance for Environmental Policy?” Environment and Development Economics 3: 105–30.

Hutchinson, C. F., S. M. Herrmann, T. Maukonen, and J. Weber. 2005. “Introduction: The ‘Greening’ of the Sahel.” Journal of Arid Environments 63 (3): 535–37. doi:10.1016/j.jaridenv.2005.03.002.

Hyle, M. A., B. P. Devkota, and I. Mustalahti. 2019. “From Blueprints to Empowerment of Disadvantaged Groups in Natural Resource Governance: Lessons from Nepal and Tanzania.” International Journal of the Commons 13 (2): 1062–78. doi:10.5334/ijc.951.

IFAD (International Fund for Agricultural Development). 2015. IFAD Annual Report 2015. Rome: IFAD. https://www.ifad.org/en/web/knowledge/publication/asset/39218037.

Jeddi, K., and M. Chaieb. 2010. “Changes in Soil Properties and Vegetation Following Livestock Grazing Exclusion in Degraded Arid Environments of South Tunisia.” Flora-Morphology, Distribution, Functional Ecology of Plants 205 (3): 184–89.

Kaboré, C. 2013. Evaluation of a Community Managed Forest Project: Humbo, Ethiopia. Melbourne: BetterEvaluation.

Kumari Rigaud, K., A. de Sherbinin, B. Jones, J. Bergmann, V. Clement, K. Ober, J. Schewe, et. al. 2018. Groundswell: Preparing for Internal Climate Migration. Washington, DC: World Bank.

Kusakabe, K., R. Shrestha, and N. Veena, eds. 2015. Gender and Land Tenure in the Context of Disaster in Asia. Cham, Switzerland: Springer International.

Lange, G.-M., Q. Wodon, and K. Carey, eds. 2018. The Changing Wealth of Nations 2018: Building a Sustainable Future. Washington, DC: World Bank.

Lezzaik, K., A. Milewski, and J. Mullen. 2018. “The Groundwater Risk Index: Development and Application in the Middle East and North Africa Region.” Science of the Total Environment 628: 1149–64.

Li, W., and L. Huntsinger. 2011. “China’s Grassland Contract Policy and Its Impacts on Herder Ability to Benefit in Inner Mongolia: Tragic Feedbacks.” Ecology and Society 16 (2): 1.

Mansuri, G., and V. Rao. 2013. Localizing Development: Does Participation Work? Washington, DC: World Bank.

Mearns, R. 1995. “Environmental Entitlements: An Outline Framework for Analysis, and a Mongolian Case Study.” Working Paper 15, Institute of Development Studies, Brighton, UK.

Msangi, S. 2020. “Structured Literature Review on Groundwater Management in Water-Scarce Regions.” Background paper, The Natural Resource Degradation and Human Vulnerability Nexus: An Evaluation of the World Bank’s Support for Sustainable and Inclusive Natural Resource Management (2009–19), Independent Evaluation. Background paper, Independent Evaluation Group, World Bank, Washington, DC.

Newton, P., D. C. Miller, M. A. A. Byenkya, and A. Agrawal. 2016. “Who Are Forest-Dependent People? A Taxonomy to Aid Livelihood and Land Use Decision-Making in Forested Regions.” Land Use Policy 57: 388–95.

Notess, L., P. G. Veit, I. Monterroso, E. Sulle, A. M. Larson, A. S. Gindroz, J. Quaedvlieg, and A. Williams. 2018. “The Scramble for Land Rights: Reducing Inequity between Communities and Companies.” World Resources Institute, Washington, DC.

Ouedraogo, I., J. Runge, J. Eisenberg, J. Barron, and S. Sawadogo-Kabore. 2014. “The Re-greening of the Sahel: Natural Cyclicity or Human-Induced Change?” Land 3 (3): 1075–90.

Polidoro, B., G. M. Ralph, K. Strongin, M. Harvey, K. E. Carpenter, T. Ayo Adeofe, R. Arnold, et al. 2016. Red List of Marine Bony Fishes of the Eastern Central Atlantic. Gland, Switzerland: International Union for Conservation of Nature.

Reed, J., A. Ickowitz, C. Chervier, H. Djoudi, K. Moombe, M. Ros-Tonen, M. Yanou, L. Yuliani, and T. Sunderland. 2020. “Integrated Landscape Approaches in the Tropics: A Brief Stock-Take.” Land Use Policy 99: 104822.

Ribot, J. C. 2010. “Vulnerability Does Not Just Fall from the Sky: Toward Multi-Scale Pro-poor Climate Policy.” In Social Dimensions of Climate Change: Equity and Vulnerability in a Warming World, edited by Robin Mearns and Andrew Norton, 47–74. Washington, DC: World Bank.

RRI (Rights and Resources Initiative). 2014. What Future for Reform? Progress and Slowdown in Forest Tenure Reform since 2002. Washington, DC: RRI. https://rightsandresources.org/wp-content/uploads/RRI4011D_FlagshipMAR2014r13B.pdf.

Sayer, J., T. Sunderland, J. Ghazoul, J. L. Pfund, D. Sheil, E. Meijaard, M. Venter, et al. 2013. “Ten Principles for a Landscape Approach to Reconciling Agriculture, Conservation, and Other Competing Land Uses.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 110 (21): 8349–56.

Scholes, R., L. Montanarella, A. Brainich, N. Barger, B. Brink, M. Cantele, B. Erasmus, et al. 2018. The Assessment Report on Land Degradation and Restoration: Summary for Policymakers. Bonn: Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services.

Smith, M., K. Cross, M. Paden, and P. Laban. 2016. Spring: Managing Groundwater Sustainably. Gland, Switzerland: International Union for Conservation of Nature.

Snilstveit, B., J. Stevenson, D. Phillips, M. Vojtkova, E. Gallagher, T. Schmidt, H. Jobse, M. Geelen, M. Pastorello, and J. Eyers. 2015. Interventions for Improving Learning Outcomes and Access to Education in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: A Systematic Review. 3ie Systematic Review 24. London: International Initiative for Impact Evaluation.

Steinfeld, H., P. Gerber, T. Wassenaar, V. Castel, M. Rosales, and C. De Haan. 2006. Livestock’s Long Shadow: Environmental Issues and Options. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization.

Taylor, J. L. 2006. “Negotiating the Grassland: The Policy of Pasture Enclosures and Contested Resource Use in Inner Mongolia.” Human Organization 65 (4): 374–86.

Tuck, L., and W. Zakout. 2019. “7 Reasons for Land and Property Rights to Be at the Top of the Global Agenda.” Voices: Perspectives on Development (blog), March 25, 2019. https://blogs.worldbank.org/voices/7-reasons-land-and-property-rights-be-top-global-agenda.

Turner, M., T. Carney, L. Lawler, J. Reynolds, and M. Teague. 2020. “Review of World Bank Ecological Management/Restoration Projects in Support of the Great Green Wall Initiative.” Background paper, The Natural Resource Degradation and Vulnerability Nexus: An Evaluation of the World Bank’s Support for Sustainable and Inclusive Natural Resource Management (2009–19), Independent Evaluation Group, World Bank, Washington, DC.

UNCCD (United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification). 2017. Global Land Outlook. Bonn: UNCCD.

UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme). 2016. The Contribution of Forests to National Income in Ethiopia and Linkages with REDD+. Nairobi: UNEP.

UN Water. 2019. “Water Scarcity.” http://www.unwater.org/water-facts/scarcity.

UN Women. 2013. Women and Natural Resources: Unlocking the Peace Building Potential. Nairobi and New York: UNEP, UN Women, UN Peacebuilding Support Office, and United Nations Development Programme.

Virdin, J., C. Woolston, and X. Basurto. 2020. “IEG-Duke Small-Scale Fisheries Analysis—An Input into the Natural Resource Degradation and Human Vulnerability Major Evaluation.” Background paper, The Natural Resource Degradation and Vulnerability Nexus: An Evaluation of the World Bank’s Support for Sustainable and Inclusive Natural Resource Management (2009–19), Independent Evaluation Group, World Bank, Washington, DC.

Vlek, P. L. 2005. Nothing Begets Nothing: The Creeping Disaster of Land Degradation. Bonn: United Nations University–Institute for Environment and Human Security.

Vohland, K., and B. Barry. 2009. “A Review of In Situ Rainwater Harvesting (RWH) Practices Modifying Landscape Functions in African Drylands.” Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 131 (3–4): 119–27.

Warren, A., S. Batterbury, and H. Osbahr. 2001. “Soil Erosion in the West African Sahel: A Review and an Application of a ‘Local Political Ecology’ Approach in South West Niger.” Global Environmental Change 11 (1): 79–95.

Wijnen, M., B. Augeard, B. Hiller, C. Ward, and P. Huntjens. 2012. “Managing the Invisible: Understanding and Improving Groundwater Governance.” Water Partnership Program Draft Report, World Bank, Washington, DC.

Winterbottom, B., C. Reij, and G. H. Stirrett. 2020. How to Build a Great Green Wall? Lessons from the SAWAP Experience (2012–2019). Washington, DC: World Bank.

World Bank. 2001. Making Sustainable Commitments: An Environment Strategy for the World Bank. Washington, DC: World Bank.

World Bank. 2006. Sustainable Land Management: Challenges, Opportunities, and Trade-offs. Agriculture and Rural Development. Washington, DC: World Bank.

World Bank. 2008. Sustainable Land Management Sourcebook. Agricultural and Rural Development. Washington, DC: World Bank.

World Bank. 2010a. Deep Wells and Prudence: Towards Pragmatic Action for Addressing Groundwater Overexploitation in India. Washington, DC: World Bank.

World Bank. 2010b. World Development Report 2010: Development and Climate Change. Washington, DC: World Bank.

World Bank. 2011. “India—A Cluster Assessment of Forestry and Watershed Development Activities.” Project Performance Assessment Report 61065, Independent Evaluation Group, World Bank, Washington, DC. https://ieg.worldbankgroup.org/sites/default/files/Data/reports/india_cluster_ppar_2011.pdf.

World Bank. 2012a. Hidden Harvest: The Global Contribution of Capture Fisheries. Washington, DC: World Bank.

World Bank. 2012b. “Toward a Green, Clean, and Resilient World for All: A World Bank Group Environment Strategy 2012–2022.” Working Paper 6609, World Bank, Washington, DC.

World Bank. 2013. “Ethiopia—Humbo Assisted Natural Regeneration Project.” Implementation Status and Results Report, ISR5383. World Bank, Washington, DC.

World Bank. 2014a. “Africa—Sustainable Groundwater Management in SADC Member States Project.” Project Appraisal Document PAD685, World Bank, Washington, DC.

World Bank. 2014b. “Moving Toward a Sustainable Landscape Approach to Development.” Agriculture and Environmental Services Department Note No. 12. World Bank, Washington, DC.

World Bank. 2015. A Measured Approach to Ending Poverty and Boosting Shared Prosperity: Concepts, Data, and the Twin Goals. Policy Research Report. Washington, DC: World Bank.

World Bank. 2016a. “Middle East and North Africa—Regional Coordination on Improved Water Resources Management and Capacity Building Project.” Implementation Completion and Results Report ICR3517, World Bank, Washington, DC.

World Bank. 2016b. “Middle East and North Africa—Regional Coordination on Improved Water Resources Management and Capacity Building Project.” Implementation Completion and Results Report Review ICRR20236, Independent Evaluation Group, World Bank, Washington, DC.

World Bank. 2016c. World Bank Group Climate Change Action Plan 2016–2020. Washington, DC: World Bank.

World Bank. 2017. “Fighting Land Degradation at Landscape Scale: Sustainable Land and Water Management in Africa’s Drylands and Vulnerable Landscapes.” Working Paper 119759, World Bank, Washington, DC.

World Bank. 2018a. Beyond Scarcity: Water Security in the Middle East and North Africa. MENA Development Report. Washington, DC: World Bank.

World Bank. 2018b. Carbon Markets for Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction in a Warming World: An Evaluation of the World Bank Group’s Support to Carbon Finance. Independent Evaluation Group. Washington, DC: World Bank.

World Bank. 2018c. Poverty and Shared Prosperity 2018: Piecing Together the Poverty Puzzle. Washington, DC: World Bank.

World Bank. 2019a. “India—Andhra Pradesh and Telangana State Community-Based Tank Management Project.” Project Performance Assessment Report 144222, Independent Evaluation Group, World Bank, Washington, DC. https://ieg.worldbankgroup.org/sites/default/files/Data/reports/ppar_indiaandhrapradesh.pdf.

World Bank. 2019b. “India—Water Sector Improvement Project.” Implementation Completion and Results Report ICR4439, World Bank, Washington, DC.

World Bank. 2019c. “India—Water Sector Improvement Project.” Implementation Completion and Results Report Review ICRR21583, Independent Evaluation Group, World Bank, Washington, DC.

World Bank. 2019d. The World Bank Group’s Action Plan on Climate Change Adaptation and Resilience: Managing Risks for a More Resilient Future. Washington, DC: World Bank.

World Bank. 2020a. “Ethiopia—Sustainable Land Management Project I and II.” Project Performance Assessment Report 153559, Independent Evaluation Group, World Bank, Washington, DC. https://ieg.worldbankgroup.org/sites/default/files/Data/reports/ppar_ethiopiasustainableland.pdf.

World Bank. 2020b. “IDA19: An Overview: ‘Ten Years to 2030: Growth, People, Resilience.’” World Bank, Washington, DC.

World Bank. 2020c. “Water Security and Resilience for the Valley of Mexico Project (PROSEGHIR).” Project Appraisal Document PAD2577, World Bank, Washington, DC.

Xu, Y., Y. Zhang, L. Gao, G. Qiao, and J. Chen. 2015. “To Fence or Not to Fence? Perceptions and Attitudes of Herders in Inner Mongolia.” In Building Resilience of Mongolian Rangelands, edited by M. E. Férnández-Giménez, B. Baival, S. R. Fassnacht, and D. Wilson, 169–75. Ulaanbaatar: Nutag Action and Research Institute.

Yayneshet, T., L. O. Eik, and S. R. Moe. 2009. “The Effects of Exclosures in Restoring Degraded Semi-Arid Vegetation in Communal Grazing Lands in Northern Ethiopia.” Journal of Arid Environments 73 (4–5): 542–49.

Ying, L., and H. Ruimin. 2011. “Grazing Resource Management and Grassland Degradation in Northern China.” Journal of Resources and Ecology 2 (3): 286–88.